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Dashes are used in sentences to set off parenthetical material, to prepare for a shift in tone or to provide emphasis. Avoid overusing dashes in writing, as they make the writing seem choppy, with advice from a writer and English tutor in this free video on grammar and punctuation.
Expert: Heather Kamins
Bio: Heather Kamins was diagnosed with lupus when she was 14 years old, and has dealt with kidney involvement, joint problems, medication side effects and other lupus-related issues.
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A dash is one of several kinds of punctuation mark. Dashes are similar to hyphens, but differ from them primarily in length, and serve different functions. The most common versions of the dash are the en dash (–) and the em dash (—).
Figure dash
The figure dash (‒) is so named because it is the same width as a digit, at least in fonts with digits of equal width. This is true of most fonts, not only monospaced fonts.
The figure dash is used when a dash must be used within numbers (e.g. phone number 555‒0199). It does not indicate a range, for which the en dash is used; nor does it function as the minus sign, which also uses a separate glyph.
The figure dash is often unavailable; in this case, one may use a hyphen-minus instead. In Unicode, the figure dash is U+2012 (decimal 8210). HTML authors must use the numeric forms ‒ or ‒ to type it unless the file is in Unicode; there is no equivalent character entity. In TeX, the standard fonts have no figure dash; however, the digits normally all have the same width as the en dash, so an en dash can be substituted when using standard TeX fonts.
En dash
The en dash, n dash, n-rule, or "nut" (–) is traditionally half the width of an em dash.[2][3] In modern fonts, the length of the en dash is not standardized, and the en dash is often more than half the width of the em dash.[4] The widths of en and em dashes have also been specified as being equal to those of the upper-case letters N and M respectively,[5][6] and at other times to the widths of the lower-case letters.[4][7]
Ranges of values
The en dash is commonly used to indicate a closed range of values, meaning a range with clearly defined and non-infinite upper and lower boundaries. This may include ranges such as those between dates, times, or numbers.[8][9][10][11] Examples of this usage may include:
June–July 1967
1:00–2:00 p.m.
For ages 3–5
pp. 38–55
President Jimmy Carter (1977–1981)
The Guide for the Use of the International System of Units (SI) recommends that when a number range might be misconstrued as subtraction, the word "to" should be used instead of an en dash. For example, "a voltage of 50 V to 100 V" is preferable to using "a voltage of 50–100 V". It is also considered inappropriate to use the en dash in place of the words to or and in phrases that follow the forms from ... to ... and between ... and ....[9][10]
Relationships and connections
The en dash can also be used to contrast values, or illustrate a relationship between two things.[8][11] Examples of this usage may include:
Colombia beat Venezuela 31–0.
Radical–Unionist coalition
Boston–Hartford route
New York–London flight (however, it may be seen that New York to London flight is more appropriate because New York is a single name composed of two valid words; with a dash the phrase is ambiguous and could mean either Flight from New York to London or New flight from York to London[11])
Mother–daughter relationship
The Supreme Court voted 5–4 to uphold the decision.
The McCain–Feingold bill
A "simple" attributive compound is written with a hyphen; at least one authority considers name pairs, where the paired elements carry equal weight, as in the Taft-Hartley Act to be "simple,"[9] while others consider an en dash appropriate in instances such as this[12][13][14] to represent the parallel relationship, as in the McCain–Feingold bill or Bose–Einstein statistics. However, truly compound names are written with a hyphen, thus the Lennard-Jones potential is named after one person, while Bose and Einstein are two people.
Attributive compounds
In English, the en dash is usually used instead of a hyphen in compound (phrasal) attributives in which one or both elements is itself a compound, especially when the compound element is an open compound, meaning it is not hyphenated itself. This manner of usage may include such examples as:[9][10][15][16]
The hospital–nursing home connection
(the connection between the hospital and the nursing home, not a home connection between the hospital and nursing)
A nursing home–home care policy
Pre–Civil War era
Pulitzer Prize–winning novel
The non–San Francisco part of the world
The post–World War II era (however, a hyphen would be used in post-war era)
Trans–New Guinea languages
The ex–prime minister
The pro-conscription–anti-conscription debate
Public-school–private-school rivalries
The disambiguating value of the en dash in these patterns was illustrated by Strunk and White in The Elements of Style with the following example: when Chattanooga News and Chattanooga Free Press merged, the joint company was inaptly named Chattanooga News-Free Press, which could be interpreted as meaning that their newspapers were news-free.[17]
An exception to the use of en dashes is made however when prefixing an already hyphenated compound; an en dash is generally avoided as a distraction in this case. Examples of this may include:[17]
non-English-speaking air traffic controllers
semi-labor-intensive industries
Proto-Indo-European language (rarely Proto–Indo-European)
The post-MS-DOS era (rarely post–MS-DOS)
non-government-owned corporations
Differing recommendations
As discussed above, the en dash is sometimes recommended instead of a hyphen in compound adjectives where neither part of the adjective modifies the other—that is, when each modifies the noun, as in love–hate relationship. The Chicago Manual of Style (CMOS), however, limits the use of the en dash to two main purposes. First, use it to indicate ranges of time, money, or other amounts, or in certain other cases where it replaces the word to. Second, use it in place of a hyphen in a compound adjective when one of the elements of the adjective is an open compound, or when two or more of its elements are compounds, open or hyphenated.[18] That is, it favors hyphens in instances where some other guides suggest en dashes – the 16th edition explaining that "Chicago's sense of the en dash does not extend to between" to rule out its use in "US-Canadian relations."[18]
Spacing
En dashes normally do not have spaces around them. An exception is made when avoiding spaces may cause confusion or look odd. For example, compare 12 June – 3 July with 12 June–3 July.[19] However, in rare situations when an en dash is unavailable—such as when using typewriters or character encodings not including the en dash character—it may be substituted with a hyphen-minus with a single space on each side (" - ").[citation needed]
Parenthetic and other uses at the sentence level
Like em dashes, en dashes can be used instead of colons, or pairs of commas that mark off a nested clause or phrase. They can also be used around parenthetical expressions – such as this one – in place of the em dashes preferred by some publishers, particularly where short columns are used, since em dashes can look awkward at the end of a line. See En dash versus em dash, below. In these situations, en dashes must have a single space on each side.
Electronic usage
In TeX, the en dash may normally (depending on the font) be input as a double hyphen-minus (--). On Mac OS X, most keyboard layouts map an en dash to ⌥ Opt+-. On Microsoft Windows, an en dash may be entered as Alt+0150 (where the digits are typed on the numeric keypad while holding down the Alt key). In Linux (GTK+ v. 2.10+ applications only, see Unicode input), it is entered by holding down Ctrl+Shift and typing U followed by the Unicode code point above, or using the compose key by pressing the compose key, two hyphens, and a period.
The en dash is sometimes used as a substitute for the minus sign, when the minus sign character is not available, since the en dash is usually the same width as a plus sign. For example, the original 8-bit Macintosh character set had an en dash, useful for minus sign, years before Unicode with a dedicated minus sign was available. The hyphen-minus is usually too narrow to make a typographically acceptable minus sign. But the en dash cannot be used for a minus in programming languages because the syntax usually requires a hyphen-minus; because programming languages are usually set in a fixed-pitch (monospaced) font face, the hyphen-minus looks acceptable there.
Itemization mark
The en dash may be used as a bullet mark at the start of each item in a list.[citation needed]
Em dash
The em dash (—), m dash, m-rule, or "mutton", often demarcates a break of thought or some similar interpolation stronger than the interpolation demarcated by parentheses, such as the following from Nicholson Baker's The Mezzanine:
At that age I once stabbed my best friend, Fred, with a pair of pinking shears in the base of the neck, enraged because he had been given the comprehensive sixty-four-crayon Crayola box—including the gold and silver crayons—and would not let me look closely at the box to see how Crayola had stabilized the built-in crayon sharpener under the tiers of crayons.
It is also used to indicate that a sentence is unfinished because the speaker has been interrupted. For example, the em dash is used in the following way in Joseph Heller's Catch-22:
He was Cain, Ulysses, the Flying Dutchman; he was Lot in Sodom, Deirdre of the Sorrows, Sweeney in the nightingales among trees. He was the miracle ingredient Z-147. He was—
"Crazy!" Clevinger interrupted, shrieking. "That's what you are! Crazy!"
"—immense. I'm a real, slam-bang, honest-to-goodness, three-fisted humdinger. I'm a bona fide supraman."
Similarly, it can be used instead of an ellipsis to indicate aposiopesis, the rhetorical device by which a sentence is stopped short not because of interruption but because the speaker is too emotional to continue, such as Darth Vader's line "I sense something; a presence I've not felt since—" in Star Wars Episode IV: A New Hope.[20]
The term em dash derives from its defined width of one em, which is the length, expressed in points, by which font sizes are typically specified. Thus in 9-point type, an em is 9 points wide, while the em of 24-point type is 24 points wide, and so on (by comparison, the en dash, with its 1-en width, is in most fonts either 1⁄2 em wide[21] or the width of an n[22]).
The em dash is used in much the way a colon or a set of parentheses is used; it can show an abrupt change in thought or be used where a full stop (or "period") is too strong and a comma too weak. Em dashes are sometimes used to set off summaries or definitions.[23]
According to most American sources (such as The Chicago Manual of Style) and some British sources (such as The Oxford Guide to Style), an em dash should always be set closed, meaning it should not be surrounded by spaces. But the practice in some parts of the English-speaking world, including the style recommended by The New York Times Manual of Style and Usage, sets it open, separating it from its surrounding words by using spaces or hair spaces (U+200A) when it is being used parenthetically. Some writers, finding the em dash unappealingly long, prefer to use an open-set en dash. This "space, en dash, space" sequence is also the predominant style in German and French typography. See En dash versus em dash below.
In Canada, The Canadian Style [A Guide to Writing and Editing], The Oxford Canadian of Grammar, Spelling & Punctuation, Guide to Canadian English Usage [Second Edition], Editing Canadian English Manual, and the Canadian Oxford Dictionary all specify that an em dash should be set closed when used between words, a word and numeral, or two numerals.
In Australia, the Style manual [For authors, editors and printers, Sixth edition], also specifies that em dashes inserted between words, a word and numeral, or two numerals, should be set closed. A section on the 2-em rule (——) also explains that the 2-em can be used to mark an abrupt break in direct or reported speech, but a space is used before the 2-em if a complete word is missing, while no space is used if part of a word exists before the sudden break. Two examples of this are as follows (note that properly typeset 2-em and 3-em dashes should appear as a single dash, but they may show on this page as several em dashes with spaces in between):
I distinctly heard him say, "Go away or I'll ——".
It was alleged that D—— had been threatened with blackmail.
Monospaced fonts that mimic the look of a typewriter have the same width for all characters. Some of these fonts have em and en dashes that more or less fill the monospaced width they have available. For example, the sequence hyphen, en dash, em dash, minus shows as "- – — −" in a monospace font. Typewriters often only have a single hyphen glyph, so it is common to use two monospace hyphens strung together (--) to serve as an em dash.
When an actual em dash is unavailable—as in the ASCII character set—a double ("--") or triple hyphen-minus ("---") is used. In Unicode, the em dash is U+2014 (decimal 8212). In HTML, one may use the numeric forms — or —; there is also the HTML entity —. In TeX, the em dash may normally be input as a triple hyphen-minus (---). On any Mac, most keyboard layouts map an em dash to ⌥ Opt+⇧ Shift+-. On Microsoft Windows, an em dash may be entered as Alt+0151, where the digits are typed on the numeric keypad while holding the Alt key down. It can also be entered into Microsoft Office applications by using the Ctrl+Alt+-. In the X Window System, it may entered using the compose key by pressing the compose key and three hyphens.
Corpus studies indicate that em dashes are more commonly used in Russian than in English.[24]
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